Science and Society

Question 1: Discuss current trends in scientific higher education part 2.

Answer 1: In the UK, women occupied over half the places in science-related higher education courses (science, medicine, maths, computer science and engineering) in 2004/5. However, gender differences by individual subject were large: women substantially outnumbered men in biology and medicine, especially nursing, while men predominated in maths, physical sciences, computer science and engineering.In the U.S., women with science or engineering doctoral degrees were predominantly employed in the education sector in 2001.

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Question 2: Discuss the early German women scientists.

Answer 2: Female German scientists had a unique point of origin. There, the tradition of female participation in craft production enabled some women to become involved in observational science, especially astronomy. Between 1650 and 1710, women made up 14 percent of scientists

Question 3: Explain women’s contributions to science in the early 18th century France.

Answer 3: The rise of salon (gathering) culture in France in the period brought philosophes and their conversations about contemporary political, social and scientific topics into the homes of the wealthy and powerful. These salons were mostly orchestrated by women, as the home was traditionally female space, and several well-known women emerged as figureheads in salon culture for both their hostess skills and their own intellectual contributions to the conversation. Émilie du Châtelet, for instance, translated Newton's Principia into French and deduced the conservation of energy. Because many experiments and conversations took place in the home, women could be well-placed to assist husbands or other family members with an interest in science. Among the best known of these scientific wives is Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, who married Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier at 14 and became his assistant in his home laboratory. Mme. Lavoisier spoke English and translated not only her husband's correspondence with English chemists, but also the entirety of Richard Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston, a key text in the controversy with English chemists such as Joseph Priestly over the nature of heat in chemical reactions. Mme Lavoisier also took drawing lessons from Jacques-Louis David and personally engraved the fourteen plates to her husband's revolutionary Traite Elementaire de Chimie (1789). Mme. Lavoisier maintained a small but lively salon and correspondence with French scientists and naturalists, many of whom were impressed by her intellect.

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