The Scientific View of the World
Question 1: Describe the contributions of Joseph Black, Robert Boyle, Joseph Priestley, and Antoine Lavoisier to the field of chemistry.
Answer 1: Robert Boyle – Pioneered the modern science of chemistry; in 1662 he proved that temperature and pressure affect the space that a gas occupies; helped develop the air pump Joseph Black – Conducted experiments in the 1750s to illustrate how air could be combined with and separated from solids; proved air was not an element itself, but rather made up of several elementsJoseph Priestley – Discovered the element oxygen in 1774; developed the phlogiston theory to explain how gases are released during burningAntoine Lavoisier – Named Priestley’s discovery “oxygen;” discovered how oxygen contributed to fire and how steam evaporated into air; developed gravimetric methods that made possible the isolation, analysis, and categorization of elements; conducted experiments that led to creation of the law of conservation of matter: matter can change form, but cannot be created or destroyed
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Question 2: Explain how chemists radically altered human interpretation of matter.
Answer 2: Prior to the development of the field of chemistry, alchemy—a blending of chemical science and magic—reigned supreme. While some alchemists contributed useful discoveries about the nature of physical matter, their main focus was on trying to change the substance of matter into something more valuable (such as turning base metals into gold or transforming liquids into magical elixirs). By the 1700s, many scientists were trying to shift the study of matter from alchemy to the more empirical field of chemistry. They applied scientific methods to analyze the essence of matter and how it changes. In doing so, they disproved many theories of traditional thinking. For example, prior to Lavoisier’s experiments, most scientists thought that fire and air were elements.
Question 3: Summarize major advances in mechanical sciences after Newton.
Answer 3: One of Newton’s greatest contributions to the mechanical sciences was the application of high-level mathematics to physics in order to solve complex theoretical puzzles. For example, followers of Newton argued that the Earth was oblate in shape due to centrifugal force at the Equator, while other scientists argued that gravity at the Equator would cause the Earth to be squeezed and pointed at the poles (similar to a modern football). Scientific expeditions to measure the meridian proved the Newtonians correct, strengthening their other theories. Other influential specialists in mechanics included Leonhard Euler, who developed the calculus of variations; Jean Le Rond d’Alembert and Joseph-Louis Lagrange, who advanced a purely mathematical form of mechanics; and Pierre-Simon marquis de Laplace, who codified all advances in mechanics from the time of Newton’s Celestial Mechanics (1799).
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